matplotlibcpp.h

#pragma once

// Python headers must be included before any system headers, since
// they define _POSIX_C_SOURCE
#include <Python.h>

#include <vector>
#include <map>
#include <array>
#include <numeric>
#include <algorithm>
#include <stdexcept>
#include <iostream>
#include <cstdint> // <cstdint> requires c++11 support
#include <functional>
#include <string> // std::stod

#ifndef WITHOUT_NUMPY
# define NPY_NO_DEPRECATED_API NPY_1_7_API_VERSION
# include <numpy/arrayobject.h>

# ifdef WITH_OPENCV
# include <opencv2/opencv.hpp>
# endif // WITH_OPENCV

/*
 * A bunch of constants were removed in OpenCV 4 in favour of enum classes, so
 * define the ones we need here.
 */
# if CV_MAJOR_VERSION > 3
# define CV_BGR2RGB cv::COLOR_BGR2RGB
# define CV_BGRA2RGBA cv::COLOR_BGRA2RGBA
# endif
#endif // WITHOUT_NUMPY

#if PY_MAJOR_VERSION >= 3
# define PyString_FromString PyUnicode_FromString
# define PyInt_FromLong PyLong_FromLong
# define PyString_FromString PyUnicode_FromString
#endif


namespace matplotlibcpp {
namespace detail {

static std::string s_backend;

struct _interpreter {
 PyObject* s_python_function_arrow;
 PyObject *s_python_function_show;
 PyObject *s_python_function_close;
 PyObject *s_python_function_draw;
 PyObject *s_python_function_pause;
 PyObject *s_python_function_save;
 PyObject *s_python_function_figure;
 PyObject *s_python_function_fignum_exists;
 PyObject *s_python_function_plot;
 PyObject *s_python_function_quiver;
 PyObject* s_python_function_contour;
 PyObject *s_python_function_semilogx;
 PyObject *s_python_function_semilogy;
 PyObject *s_python_function_loglog;
 PyObject *s_python_function_fill;
 PyObject *s_python_function_fill_between;
 PyObject *s_python_function_hist;
 PyObject *s_python_function_imshow;
 PyObject *s_python_function_scatter;
 PyObject *s_python_function_boxplot;
 PyObject *s_python_function_subplot;
 PyObject *s_python_function_subplot2grid;
 PyObject *s_python_function_legend;
 PyObject *s_python_function_xlim;
 PyObject *s_python_function_ion;
 PyObject *s_python_function_ginput;
 PyObject *s_python_function_ylim;
 PyObject *s_python_function_title;
 PyObject *s_python_function_axis;
 PyObject *s_python_function_axhline;
 PyObject *s_python_function_axvline;
 PyObject *s_python_function_axvspan;
 PyObject *s_python_function_xlabel;
 PyObject *s_python_function_ylabel;
 PyObject *s_python_function_gca;
 PyObject *s_python_function_xticks;
 PyObject *s_python_function_yticks;
 PyObject* s_python_function_margins;
 PyObject *s_python_function_tick_params;
 PyObject *s_python_function_grid;
 PyObject* s_python_function_cla;
 PyObject *s_python_function_clf;
 PyObject *s_python_function_errorbar;
 PyObject *s_python_function_annotate;
 PyObject *s_python_function_tight_layout;
 PyObject *s_python_colormap;
 PyObject *s_python_empty_tuple;
 PyObject *s_python_function_stem;
 PyObject *s_python_function_xkcd;
 PyObject *s_python_function_text;
 PyObject *s_python_function_suptitle;
 PyObject *s_python_function_bar;
 PyObject *s_python_function_barh;
 PyObject *s_python_function_colorbar;
 PyObject *s_python_function_subplots_adjust;
 PyObject *s_python_function_rcparams;
 PyObject *s_python_function_spy;

 /* For now, _interpreter is implemented as a singleton since its currently not possible to have
 multiple independent embedded python interpreters without patching the python source code
 or starting a separate process for each. [1]
 Furthermore, many python objects expect that they are destructed in the same thread as they
 were constructed. [2] So for advanced usage, a `kill()` function is provided so that library
 users can manually ensure that the interpreter is constructed and destroyed within the
 same thread.

 1: http://bytes.com/topic/python/answers/793370-multiple-independent-python-interpreters-c-c-program
 2: https://github.com/lava/matplotlib-cpp/pull/202#issue-436220256
 */

 static _interpreter& get() {
 return interkeeper(false);
 }

 static _interpreter& kill() {
 return interkeeper(true);
 }

 // Stores the actual singleton object referenced by `get()` and `kill()`.
 static _interpreter& interkeeper(bool should_kill) {
 static _interpreter ctx;
 if (should_kill)
 ctx.~_interpreter();
 return ctx;
 }

 PyObject* safe_import(PyObject* module, std::string fname) {
 PyObject* fn = PyObject_GetAttrString(module, fname.c_str());

 if (!fn)
 throw std::runtime_error(std::string("Couldn't find required function: ") + fname);

 if (!PyFunction_Check(fn))
 throw std::runtime_error(fname + std::string(" is unexpectedly not a PyFunction."));

 return fn;
 }

private:

#ifndef WITHOUT_NUMPY
# if PY_MAJOR_VERSION >= 3

 void *import_numpy() {
 import_array(); // initialize C-API
 return NULL;
 }

# else

 void import_numpy() {
 import_array(); // initialize C-API
 }

# endif
#endif

 _interpreter() {

 // optional but recommended
#if PY_MAJOR_VERSION >= 3
 wchar_t name[] = L"plotting";
#else
 char name[] = "plotting";
#endif
#if PY_MINOR_VERSION < 11
 Py_SetProgramName(name);
 Py_Initialize();

 wchar_t const *dummy_args[] = {L"Python", NULL}; // const is needed because literals must not be modified
 wchar_t const **argv = dummy_args;
 int argc = sizeof(dummy_args)/sizeof(dummy_args[0])-1;
 PySys_SetArgv(argc, const_cast<wchar_t **>(argv));
 #else
 PyStatus status;
 PyConfig config;
 PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);
 wchar_t const* dummy_args[] = { L"Python", NULL }; // const is needed because literals must not be modified
 wchar_t* const* argv = const_cast<wchar_t* const*>(dummy_args);
 int argc = sizeof(dummy_args) / sizeof(dummy_args[0]) - 1;
 if (argc && argv) {
 status = PyConfig_SetString(&config, &config.program_name, name);
 if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
 PyConfig_Clear(&config);
 }
 status = PyConfig_SetArgv(&config, argc, argv);
 if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
 PyConfig_Clear(&config);
 }
 }
 status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
 if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
 PyConfig_Clear(&config);
 }
 PyConfig_Clear(&config);
#endif

#ifndef WITHOUT_NUMPY
 import_numpy(); // initialize numpy C-API
#endif

 PyObject* matplotlibname = PyString_FromString("matplotlib");
 PyObject* pyplotname = PyString_FromString("matplotlib.pyplot");
 PyObject* cmname = PyString_FromString("matplotlib.cm");
 PyObject* pylabname = PyString_FromString("pylab");
 if (!pyplotname || !pylabname || !matplotlibname || !cmname) {
 throw std::runtime_error("couldnt create string");
 }

 PyObject* matplotlib = PyImport_Import(matplotlibname);

 Py_DECREF(matplotlibname);
 if (!matplotlib) {
 PyErr_Print();
 throw std::runtime_error("Error loading module matplotlib!");
 }

 // matplotlib.use() must be called *before* pylab, matplotlib.pyplot,
 // or matplotlib.backends is imported for the first time
 if (!s_backend.empty()) {
 PyObject_CallMethod(matplotlib, const_cast<char*>("use"), const_cast<char*>("s"), s_backend.c_str());
 }



 PyObject* pymod = PyImport_Import(pyplotname);
 Py_DECREF(pyplotname);
 if (!pymod) { throw std::runtime_error("Error loading module matplotlib.pyplot!"); }

 s_python_colormap = PyImport_Import(cmname);
 Py_DECREF(cmname);
 if (!s_python_colormap) { throw std::runtime_error("Error loading module matplotlib.cm!"); }

 PyObject* pylabmod = PyImport_Import(pylabname);
 Py_DECREF(pylabname);
 if (!pylabmod) { throw std::runtime_error("Error loading module pylab!"); }

 s_python_function_arrow = safe_import(pymod, "arrow");
 s_python_function_show = safe_import(pymod, "show");
 s_python_function_close = safe_import(pymod, "close");
 s_python_function_draw = safe_import(pymod, "draw");
 s_python_function_pause = safe_import(pymod, "pause");
 s_python_function_figure = safe_import(pymod, "figure");
 s_python_function_fignum_exists = safe_import(pymod, "fignum_exists");
 s_python_function_plot = safe_import(pymod, "plot");
 s_python_function_quiver = safe_import(pymod, "quiver");
 s_python_function_contour = safe_import(pymod, "contour");
 s_python_function_semilogx = safe_import(pymod, "semilogx");
 s_python_function_semilogy = safe_import(pymod, "semilogy");
 s_python_function_loglog = safe_import(pymod, "loglog");
 s_python_function_fill = safe_import(pymod, "fill");
 s_python_function_fill_between = safe_import(pymod, "fill_between");
 s_python_function_hist = safe_import(pymod,"hist");
 s_python_function_scatter = safe_import(pymod,"scatter");
 s_python_function_boxplot = safe_import(pymod,"boxplot");
 s_python_function_subplot = safe_import(pymod, "subplot");
 s_python_function_subplot2grid = safe_import(pymod, "subplot2grid");
 s_python_function_legend = safe_import(pymod, "legend");
 s_python_function_xlim = safe_import(pymod, "xlim");
 s_python_function_ylim = safe_import(pymod, "ylim");
 s_python_function_title = safe_import(pymod, "title");
 s_python_function_axis = safe_import(pymod, "axis");
 s_python_function_axhline = safe_import(pymod, "axhline");
 s_python_function_axvline = safe_import(pymod, "axvline");
 s_python_function_axvspan = safe_import(pymod, "axvspan");
 s_python_function_xlabel = safe_import(pymod, "xlabel");
 s_python_function_ylabel = safe_import(pymod, "ylabel");
 s_python_function_gca = safe_import(pymod, "gca");
 s_python_function_xticks = safe_import(pymod, "xticks");
 s_python_function_yticks = safe_import(pymod, "yticks");
 s_python_function_margins = safe_import(pymod, "margins");
 s_python_function_tick_params = safe_import(pymod, "tick_params");
 s_python_function_grid = safe_import(pymod, "grid");
 s_python_function_ion = safe_import(pymod, "ion");
 s_python_function_ginput = safe_import(pymod, "ginput");
 s_python_function_save = safe_import(pylabmod, "savefig");
 s_python_function_annotate = safe_import(pymod,"annotate");
 s_python_function_cla = safe_import(pymod, "cla");
 s_python_function_clf = safe_import(pymod, "clf");
 s_python_function_errorbar = safe_import(pymod, "errorbar");
 s_python_function_tight_layout = safe_import(pymod, "tight_layout");
 s_python_function_stem = safe_import(pymod, "stem");
 s_python_function_xkcd = safe_import(pymod, "xkcd");
 s_python_function_text = safe_import(pymod, "text");
 s_python_function_suptitle = safe_import(pymod, "suptitle");
 s_python_function_bar = safe_import(pymod,"bar");
 s_python_function_barh = safe_import(pymod, "barh");
 s_python_function_colorbar = PyObject_GetAttrString(pymod, "colorbar");
 s_python_function_subplots_adjust = safe_import(pymod,"subplots_adjust");
 s_python_function_rcparams = PyObject_GetAttrString(pymod, "rcParams");
	s_python_function_spy = PyObject_GetAttrString(pymod, "spy");
#ifndef WITHOUT_NUMPY
 s_python_function_imshow = safe_import(pymod, "imshow");
#endif
 s_python_empty_tuple = PyTuple_New(0);
 }

 ~_interpreter() {
 Py_Finalize();
 }
};

} // end namespace detail

/// Select the backend
///
/// **NOTE:** This must be called before the first plot command to have
/// any effect.
///
/// Mainly useful to select the non-interactive 'Agg' backend when running
/// matplotlibcpp in headless mode, for example on a machine with no display.
///
/// See also: https://matplotlib.org/2.0.2/api/matplotlib_configuration_api.html#matplotlib.use
inline void backend(const std::string& name)
{
 detail::s_backend = name;
}

inline bool annotate(std::string annotation, double x, double y)
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject * xy = PyTuple_New(2);
 PyObject * str = PyString_FromString(annotation.c_str());

 PyTuple_SetItem(xy,0,PyFloat_FromDouble(x));
 PyTuple_SetItem(xy,1,PyFloat_FromDouble(y));

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "xy", xy);

 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, str);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_annotate, args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);

 if(res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

namespace detail {

#ifndef WITHOUT_NUMPY
// Type selector for numpy array conversion
template <typename T> struct select_npy_type { const static NPY_TYPES type = NPY_NOTYPE; }; //Default
template <> struct select_npy_type<double> { const static NPY_TYPES type = NPY_DOUBLE; };
template <> struct select_npy_type<float> { const static NPY_TYPES type = NPY_FLOAT; };
template <> struct select_npy_type<bool> { const static NPY_TYPES type = NPY_BOOL; };
template <> struct select_npy_type<int8_t> { const static NPY_TYPES type = NPY_INT8; };
template <> struct select_npy_type<int16_t> { const static NPY_TYPES type = NPY_SHORT; };
template <> struct select_npy_type<int32_t> { const static NPY_TYPES type = NPY_INT; };
template <> struct select_npy_type<int64_t> { const static NPY_TYPES type = NPY_INT64; };
template <> struct select_npy_type<uint8_t> { const static NPY_TYPES type = NPY_UINT8; };
template <> struct select_npy_type<uint16_t> { const static NPY_TYPES type = NPY_USHORT; };
template <> struct select_npy_type<uint32_t> { const static NPY_TYPES type = NPY_ULONG; };
template <> struct select_npy_type<uint64_t> { const static NPY_TYPES type = NPY_UINT64; };

// Sanity checks; comment them out or change the numpy type below if you're compiling on
// a platform where they don't apply
static_assert(sizeof(long long) == 8);
//template <> struct select_npy_type<long long> { const static NPY_TYPES type = NPY_INT64; };
static_assert(sizeof(unsigned long long) == 8);
//template <> struct select_npy_type<unsigned long long> { const static NPY_TYPES type = NPY_UINT64; };

template<typename Numeric>
PyObject* get_array(const std::vector<Numeric>& v)
{
 npy_intp vsize = v.size();
 NPY_TYPES type = select_npy_type<Numeric>::type;
 if (type == NPY_NOTYPE) {
 size_t memsize = v.size()*sizeof(double);
 double* dp = static_cast<double*>(::malloc(memsize));
 for (size_t i=0; i<v.size(); ++i)
 dp[i] = v[i];
 PyObject* varray = PyArray_SimpleNewFromData(1, &vsize, NPY_DOUBLE, dp);
 PyArray_UpdateFlags(reinterpret_cast<PyArrayObject*>(varray), NPY_ARRAY_OWNDATA);
 return varray;
 }

 PyObject* varray = PyArray_SimpleNewFromData(1, &vsize, type, (void*)(v.data()));
 return varray;
}


template<typename Numeric>
PyObject* get_2darray(const std::vector<::std::vector<Numeric>>& v)
{
 if (v.size() < 1) throw std::runtime_error("get_2d_array v too small");

 npy_intp vsize[2] = {static_cast<npy_intp>(v.size()),
 static_cast<npy_intp>(v[0].size())};

 PyArrayObject *varray =
 (PyArrayObject *)PyArray_SimpleNew(2, vsize, NPY_DOUBLE);

 double *vd_begin = static_cast<double *>(PyArray_DATA(varray));

 for (const ::std::vector<Numeric> &v_row : v) {
 if (v_row.size() != static_cast<size_t>(vsize[1]))
 throw std::runtime_error("Missmatched array size");
 std::copy(v_row.begin(), v_row.end(), vd_begin);
 vd_begin += vsize[1];
 }

 return reinterpret_cast<PyObject *>(varray);
}

#else // fallback if we don't have numpy: copy every element of the given vector

template<typename Numeric>
PyObject* get_array(const std::vector<Numeric>& v)
{
 PyObject* list = PyList_New(v.size());
 for(size_t i = 0; i < v.size(); ++i) {
 PyList_SetItem(list, i, PyFloat_FromDouble(v.at(i)));
 }
 return list;
}

#endif // WITHOUT_NUMPY

// sometimes, for labels and such, we need string arrays
inline PyObject * get_array(const std::vector<std::string>& strings)
{
 PyObject* list = PyList_New(strings.size());
 for (std::size_t i = 0; i < strings.size(); ++i) {
 PyList_SetItem(list, i, PyString_FromString(strings[i].c_str()));
 }
 return list;
}

// not all matplotlib need 2d arrays, some prefer lists of lists
template<typename Numeric>
PyObject* get_listlist(const std::vector<std::vector<Numeric>>& ll)
{
 PyObject* listlist = PyList_New(ll.size());
 for (std::size_t i = 0; i < ll.size(); ++i) {
 PyList_SetItem(listlist, i, get_array(ll[i]));
 }
 return listlist;
}

} // namespace detail

/// Plot a line through the given x and y data points..
///
/// See: https://matplotlib.org/3.2.1/api/_as_gen/matplotlib.pyplot.plot.html
template<typename Numeric>
bool plot(const std::vector<Numeric> &x, const std::vector<Numeric> &y, const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords)
{
 assert(x.size() == y.size());

 detail::_interpreter::get();

 // using numpy arrays
 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 // construct positional args
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(2);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 1, yarray);

 // construct keyword args
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for(std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it)
 {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyString_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_plot, args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if(res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

// TODO - it should be possible to make this work by implementing
// a non-numpy alternative for `detail::get_2darray()`.
#ifndef WITHOUT_NUMPY
template <typename Numeric>
void plot_surface(const std::vector<::std::vector<Numeric>> &x,
 const std::vector<::std::vector<Numeric>> &y,
 const std::vector<::std::vector<Numeric>> &z,
 const std::map<std::string, std::string> &keywords =
 std::map<std::string, std::string>(),
 const long fig_number=0)
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 // We lazily load the modules here the first time this function is called
 // because I'm not sure that we can assume "matplotlib installed" implies
 // "mpl_toolkits installed" on all platforms, and we don't want to require
 // it for people who don't need 3d plots.
 static PyObject *mpl_toolkitsmod = nullptr, *axis3dmod = nullptr;
 if (!mpl_toolkitsmod) {
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* mpl_toolkits = PyString_FromString("mpl_toolkits");
 PyObject* axis3d = PyString_FromString("mpl_toolkits.mplot3d");
 if (!mpl_toolkits || !axis3d) { throw std::runtime_error("couldnt create string"); }

 mpl_toolkitsmod = PyImport_Import(mpl_toolkits);
 Py_DECREF(mpl_toolkits);
 if (!mpl_toolkitsmod) { throw std::runtime_error("Error loading module mpl_toolkits!"); }

 axis3dmod = PyImport_Import(axis3d);
 Py_DECREF(axis3d);
 if (!axis3dmod) { throw std::runtime_error("Error loading module mpl_toolkits.mplot3d!"); }
 }

 assert(x.size() == y.size());
 assert(y.size() == z.size());

 // using numpy arrays
 PyObject *xarray = detail::get_2darray(x);
 PyObject *yarray = detail::get_2darray(y);
 PyObject *zarray = detail::get_2darray(z);

 // construct positional args
 PyObject *args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 1, yarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 2, zarray);

 // Build up the kw args.
 PyObject *kwargs = PyDict_New();
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "rstride", PyInt_FromLong(1));
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "cstride", PyInt_FromLong(1));

 PyObject *python_colormap_coolwarm = PyObject_GetAttrString(
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_colormap, "coolwarm");

 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "cmap", python_colormap_coolwarm);

 for (std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin();
 it != keywords.end(); ++it) {
 if (it->first == "linewidth" || it->first == "alpha") {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(),
 PyFloat_FromDouble(std::stod(it->second)));
 } else {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(),
 PyString_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }
 }

 PyObject *fig_args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyObject* fig = nullptr;
 PyTuple_SetItem(fig_args, 0, PyLong_FromLong(fig_number));
 PyObject *fig_exists =
 PyObject_CallObject(
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_fignum_exists, fig_args);
 if (!PyObject_IsTrue(fig_exists)) {
 fig = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_figure,
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple);
 } else {
 fig = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_figure,
 fig_args);
 }
 Py_DECREF(fig_exists);
 if (!fig) throw std::runtime_error("Call to figure() failed.");

 PyObject *gca_kwargs = PyDict_New();
 PyDict_SetItemString(gca_kwargs, "projection", PyString_FromString("3d"));

 PyObject *gca = PyObject_GetAttrString(fig, "gca");
 if (!gca) throw std::runtime_error("No gca");
 Py_INCREF(gca);
 PyObject *axis = PyObject_Call(
 gca, detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple, gca_kwargs);

 if (!axis) throw std::runtime_error("No axis");
 Py_INCREF(axis);

 Py_DECREF(gca);
 Py_DECREF(gca_kwargs);

 PyObject *plot_surface = PyObject_GetAttrString(axis, "plot_surface");
 if (!plot_surface) throw std::runtime_error("No surface");
 Py_INCREF(plot_surface);
 PyObject *res = PyObject_Call(plot_surface, args, kwargs);
 if (!res) throw std::runtime_error("failed surface");
 Py_DECREF(plot_surface);

 Py_DECREF(axis);
 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if (res) Py_DECREF(res);
}

template <typename Numeric>
void contour(const std::vector<::std::vector<Numeric>> &x,
 const std::vector<::std::vector<Numeric>> &y,
 const std::vector<::std::vector<Numeric>> &z,
 const std::map<std::string, std::string> &keywords = {})
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 // using numpy arrays
 PyObject *xarray = detail::get_2darray(x);
 PyObject *yarray = detail::get_2darray(y);
 PyObject *zarray = detail::get_2darray(z);

 // construct positional args
 PyObject *args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 1, yarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 2, zarray);

 // Build up the kw args.
 PyObject *kwargs = PyDict_New();

 PyObject *python_colormap_coolwarm = PyObject_GetAttrString(
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_colormap, "coolwarm");

 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "cmap", python_colormap_coolwarm);

 for (std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin();
 it != keywords.end(); ++it) {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(),
 PyString_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject *res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_contour, args, kwargs);
 if (!res)
 throw std::runtime_error("failed contour");

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if (res) Py_DECREF(res);
}

template <typename Numeric>
void spy(const std::vector<::std::vector<Numeric>> &x,
 const double markersize = -1, // -1 for default matplotlib size
 const std::map<std::string, std::string> &keywords = {})
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject *xarray = detail::get_2darray(x);

 PyObject *kwargs = PyDict_New();
 if (markersize != -1) {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "markersize", PyFloat_FromDouble(markersize));
 }
 for (std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin();
 it != keywords.end(); ++it) {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(),
 PyString_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject *plot_args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);

 PyObject *res = PyObject_Call(
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_spy, plot_args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if (res) Py_DECREF(res);
}
#endif // WITHOUT_NUMPY

template <typename Numeric>
void plot3(const std::vector<Numeric> &x,
 const std::vector<Numeric> &y,
 const std::vector<Numeric> &z,
 const std::map<std::string, std::string> &keywords =
 std::map<std::string, std::string>(),
 const long fig_number=0)
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 // Same as with plot_surface: We lazily load the modules here the first time
 // this function is called because I'm not sure that we can assume "matplotlib
 // installed" implies "mpl_toolkits installed" on all platforms, and we don't
 // want to require it for people who don't need 3d plots.
 static PyObject *mpl_toolkitsmod = nullptr, *axis3dmod = nullptr;
 if (!mpl_toolkitsmod) {
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* mpl_toolkits = PyString_FromString("mpl_toolkits");
 PyObject* axis3d = PyString_FromString("mpl_toolkits.mplot3d");
 if (!mpl_toolkits || !axis3d) { throw std::runtime_error("couldnt create string"); }

 mpl_toolkitsmod = PyImport_Import(mpl_toolkits);
 Py_DECREF(mpl_toolkits);
 if (!mpl_toolkitsmod) { throw std::runtime_error("Error loading module mpl_toolkits!"); }

 axis3dmod = PyImport_Import(axis3d);
 Py_DECREF(axis3d);
 if (!axis3dmod) { throw std::runtime_error("Error loading module mpl_toolkits.mplot3d!"); }
 }

 assert(x.size() == y.size());
 assert(y.size() == z.size());

 PyObject *xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject *yarray = detail::get_array(y);
 PyObject *zarray = detail::get_array(z);

 // construct positional args
 PyObject *args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 1, yarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 2, zarray);

 // Build up the kw args.
 PyObject *kwargs = PyDict_New();

 for (std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin();
 it != keywords.end(); ++it) {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(),
 PyString_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject *fig_args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyObject* fig = nullptr;
 PyTuple_SetItem(fig_args, 0, PyLong_FromLong(fig_number));
 PyObject *fig_exists =
 PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_fignum_exists, fig_args);
 if (!PyObject_IsTrue(fig_exists)) {
 fig = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_figure,
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple);
 } else {
 fig = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_figure,
 fig_args);
 }
 if (!fig) throw std::runtime_error("Call to figure() failed.");

 PyObject *gca_kwargs = PyDict_New();
 PyDict_SetItemString(gca_kwargs, "projection", PyString_FromString("3d"));

 PyObject *gca = PyObject_GetAttrString(fig, "gca");
 if (!gca) throw std::runtime_error("No gca");
 Py_INCREF(gca);
 PyObject *axis = PyObject_Call(
 gca, detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple, gca_kwargs);

 if (!axis) throw std::runtime_error("No axis");
 Py_INCREF(axis);

 Py_DECREF(gca);
 Py_DECREF(gca_kwargs);

 PyObject *plot3 = PyObject_GetAttrString(axis, "plot");
 if (!plot3) throw std::runtime_error("No 3D line plot");
 Py_INCREF(plot3);
 PyObject *res = PyObject_Call(plot3, args, kwargs);
 if (!res) throw std::runtime_error("Failed 3D line plot");
 Py_DECREF(plot3);

 Py_DECREF(axis);
 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if (res) Py_DECREF(res);
}

template<typename Numeric>
bool stem(const std::vector<Numeric> &x, const std::vector<Numeric> &y, const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords)
{
 assert(x.size() == y.size());

 detail::_interpreter::get();

 // using numpy arrays
 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 // construct positional args
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(2);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 1, yarray);

 // construct keyword args
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for (std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it =
 keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it) {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(),
 PyString_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_stem, args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if (res)
 Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template< typename Numeric >
bool fill(const std::vector<Numeric>& x, const std::vector<Numeric>& y, const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords)
{
 assert(x.size() == y.size());

 detail::_interpreter::get();

 // using numpy arrays
 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 // construct positional args
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(2);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 1, yarray);

 // construct keyword args
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for (auto it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it) {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyUnicode_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_fill, args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);

 if (res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template< typename Numeric >
bool fill_between(const std::vector<Numeric>& x, const std::vector<Numeric>& y1, const std::vector<Numeric>& y2, const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords)
{
 assert(x.size() == y1.size());
 assert(x.size() == y2.size());

 detail::_interpreter::get();

 // using numpy arrays
 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* y1array = detail::get_array(y1);
 PyObject* y2array = detail::get_array(y2);

 // construct positional args
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 1, y1array);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 2, y2array);

 // construct keyword args
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for(std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it) {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyUnicode_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_fill_between, args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if(res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template <typename Numeric>
bool arrow(Numeric x, Numeric y, Numeric end_x, Numeric end_y, const std::string& fc = "r",
 const std::string ec = "k", Numeric head_length = 0.25, Numeric head_width = 0.1625) {
 PyObject* obj_x = PyFloat_FromDouble(x);
 PyObject* obj_y = PyFloat_FromDouble(y);
 PyObject* obj_end_x = PyFloat_FromDouble(end_x);
 PyObject* obj_end_y = PyFloat_FromDouble(end_y);

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "fc", PyString_FromString(fc.c_str()));
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "ec", PyString_FromString(ec.c_str()));
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "head_width", PyFloat_FromDouble(head_width));
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "head_length", PyFloat_FromDouble(head_length));

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(4);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, obj_x);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, obj_y);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 2, obj_end_x);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 3, obj_end_y);

 PyObject* res =
 PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_arrow, plot_args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if (res)
 Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template< typename Numeric>
bool hist(const std::vector<Numeric>& y, long bins=10,std::string color="b",
 double alpha=1.0, bool cumulative=false)
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "bins", PyLong_FromLong(bins));
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "color", PyString_FromString(color.c_str()));
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "alpha", PyFloat_FromDouble(alpha));
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "cumulative", cumulative ? Py_True : Py_False);

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(1);

 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, yarray);


 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_hist, plot_args, kwargs);


 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if(res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

#ifndef WITHOUT_NUMPY
namespace detail {

inline void imshow(void *ptr, const NPY_TYPES type, const int rows, const int columns, const int colors, const std::map<std::string, std::string> &keywords, PyObject** out)
{
 assert(type == NPY_UINT8 || type == NPY_FLOAT);
 assert(colors == 1 || colors == 3 || colors == 4);

 detail::_interpreter::get();

 // construct args
 npy_intp dims[3] = { rows, columns, colors };
 PyObject *args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, PyArray_SimpleNewFromData(colors == 1 ? 2 : 3, dims, type, ptr));

 // construct keyword args
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for(std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it)
 {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyUnicode_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject *res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_imshow, args, kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if (!res)
 throw std::runtime_error("Call to imshow() failed");
 if (out)
 *out = res;
 else
 Py_DECREF(res);
}

} // namespace detail

inline void imshow(const unsigned char *ptr, const int rows, const int columns, const int colors, const std::map<std::string, std::string> &keywords = {}, PyObject** out = nullptr)
{
 detail::imshow((void *) ptr, NPY_UINT8, rows, columns, colors, keywords, out);
}

inline void imshow(const float *ptr, const int rows, const int columns, const int colors, const std::map<std::string, std::string> &keywords = {}, PyObject** out = nullptr)
{
 detail::imshow((void *) ptr, NPY_FLOAT, rows, columns, colors, keywords, out);
}

#ifdef WITH_OPENCV
void imshow(const cv::Mat &image, const std::map<std::string, std::string> &keywords = {})
{
 // Convert underlying type of matrix, if needed
 cv::Mat image2;
 NPY_TYPES npy_type = NPY_UINT8;
 switch (image.type() & CV_MAT_DEPTH_MASK) {
 case CV_8U:
 image2 = image;
 break;
 case CV_32F:
 image2 = image;
 npy_type = NPY_FLOAT;
 break;
 default:
 image.convertTo(image2, CV_MAKETYPE(CV_8U, image.channels()));
 }

 // If color image, convert from BGR to RGB
 switch (image2.channels()) {
 case 3:
 cv::cvtColor(image2, image2, CV_BGR2RGB);
 break;
 case 4:
 cv::cvtColor(image2, image2, CV_BGRA2RGBA);
 }

 detail::imshow(image2.data, npy_type, image2.rows, image2.cols, image2.channels(), keywords);
}
#endif // WITH_OPENCV
#endif // WITHOUT_NUMPY

template<typename NumericX, typename NumericY>
bool scatter(const std::vector<NumericX>& x,
 const std::vector<NumericY>& y,
 const double s=1.0, // The marker size in points**2
 const std::map<std::string, std::string> & keywords = {})
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 assert(x.size() == y.size());

 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "s", PyLong_FromLong(s));
 for (const auto& it : keywords)
 {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it.first.c_str(), PyString_FromString(it.second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(2);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, yarray);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_scatter, plot_args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if(res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template<typename NumericX, typename NumericY, typename NumericColors>
 bool scatter_colored(const std::vector<NumericX>& x,
 const std::vector<NumericY>& y,
 const std::vector<NumericColors>& colors,
 const double s=1.0, // The marker size in points**2
 const std::map<std::string, std::string> & keywords = {})
 {
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 assert(x.size() == y.size());

 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);
 PyObject* colors_array = detail::get_array(colors);

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "s", PyLong_FromLong(s));
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "c", colors_array);

 for (const auto& it : keywords)
 {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it.first.c_str(), PyString_FromString(it.second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(2);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, yarray);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_scatter, plot_args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if(res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
 }
 

template<typename NumericX, typename NumericY, typename NumericZ>
bool scatter(const std::vector<NumericX>& x,
 const std::vector<NumericY>& y,
 const std::vector<NumericZ>& z,
 const double s=1.0, // The marker size in points**2
 const std::map<std::string, std::string> & keywords = {},
 const long fig_number=0) {
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 // Same as with plot_surface: We lazily load the modules here the first time 
 // this function is called because I'm not sure that we can assume "matplotlib 
 // installed" implies "mpl_toolkits installed" on all platforms, and we don't 
 // want to require it for people who don't need 3d plots.
 static PyObject *mpl_toolkitsmod = nullptr, *axis3dmod = nullptr;
 if (!mpl_toolkitsmod) {
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* mpl_toolkits = PyString_FromString("mpl_toolkits");
 PyObject* axis3d = PyString_FromString("mpl_toolkits.mplot3d");
 if (!mpl_toolkits || !axis3d) { throw std::runtime_error("couldnt create string"); }

 mpl_toolkitsmod = PyImport_Import(mpl_toolkits);
 Py_DECREF(mpl_toolkits);
 if (!mpl_toolkitsmod) { throw std::runtime_error("Error loading module mpl_toolkits!"); }

 axis3dmod = PyImport_Import(axis3d);
 Py_DECREF(axis3d);
 if (!axis3dmod) { throw std::runtime_error("Error loading module mpl_toolkits.mplot3d!"); }
 }

 assert(x.size() == y.size());
 assert(y.size() == z.size());

 PyObject *xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject *yarray = detail::get_array(y);
 PyObject *zarray = detail::get_array(z);

 // construct positional args
 PyObject *args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 1, yarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 2, zarray);

 // Build up the kw args.
 PyObject *kwargs = PyDict_New();

 for (std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin();
 it != keywords.end(); ++it) {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(),
 PyString_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }
 PyObject *fig_args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyObject* fig = nullptr;
 PyTuple_SetItem(fig_args, 0, PyLong_FromLong(fig_number));
 PyObject *fig_exists =
 PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_fignum_exists, fig_args);
 if (!PyObject_IsTrue(fig_exists)) {
 fig = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_figure,
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple);
 } else {
 fig = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_figure,
 fig_args);
 }
 Py_DECREF(fig_exists);
 if (!fig) throw std::runtime_error("Call to figure() failed.");

 PyObject *gca_kwargs = PyDict_New();
 PyDict_SetItemString(gca_kwargs, "projection", PyString_FromString("3d"));

 PyObject *gca = PyObject_GetAttrString(fig, "gca");
 if (!gca) throw std::runtime_error("No gca");
 Py_INCREF(gca);
 PyObject *axis = PyObject_Call(
 gca, detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple, gca_kwargs);

 if (!axis) throw std::runtime_error("No axis");
 Py_INCREF(axis);

 Py_DECREF(gca);
 Py_DECREF(gca_kwargs);

 PyObject *plot3 = PyObject_GetAttrString(axis, "scatter");
 if (!plot3) throw std::runtime_error("No 3D line plot");
 Py_INCREF(plot3);
 PyObject *res = PyObject_Call(plot3, args, kwargs);
 if (!res) throw std::runtime_error("Failed 3D line plot");
 Py_DECREF(plot3);

 Py_DECREF(axis);
 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(fig);
 if (res) Py_DECREF(res);
 return res;

}

template<typename Numeric>
bool boxplot(const std::vector<std::vector<Numeric>>& data,
 const std::vector<std::string>& labels = {},
 const std::map<std::string, std::string> & keywords = {})
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* listlist = detail::get_listlist(data);
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, listlist);

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();

 // kwargs needs the labels, if there are (the correct number of) labels
 if (!labels.empty() && labels.size() == data.size()) {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "labels", detail::get_array(labels));
 }

 // take care of the remaining keywords
 for (const auto& it : keywords)
 {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it.first.c_str(), PyString_FromString(it.second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_boxplot, args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);

 if(res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template<typename Numeric>
bool boxplot(const std::vector<Numeric>& data,
 const std::map<std::string, std::string> & keywords = {})
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* vector = detail::get_array(data);
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, vector);

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for (const auto& it : keywords)
 {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it.first.c_str(), PyString_FromString(it.second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_boxplot, args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);

 if(res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template <typename Numeric>
bool bar(const std::vector<Numeric> & x,
 const std::vector<Numeric> & y,
 std::string ec = "black",
 std::string ls = "-",
 double lw = 1.0,
 const std::map<std::string, std::string> & keywords = {})
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject * xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject * yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 PyObject * kwargs = PyDict_New();

 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "ec", PyString_FromString(ec.c_str()));
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "ls", PyString_FromString(ls.c_str()));
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "lw", PyFloat_FromDouble(lw));

 for (std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it =
 keywords.begin();
 it != keywords.end();
 ++it) {
 PyDict_SetItemString(
 kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyUnicode_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject * plot_args = PyTuple_New(2);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, yarray);

 PyObject * res = PyObject_Call(
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_bar, plot_args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if (res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template <typename Numeric>
bool bar(const std::vector<Numeric> & y,
 std::string ec = "black",
 std::string ls = "-",
 double lw = 1.0,
 const std::map<std::string, std::string> & keywords = {})
{
 using T = typename std::remove_reference<decltype(y)>::type::value_type;

 detail::_interpreter::get();

 std::vector<T> x;
 for (std::size_t i = 0; i < y.size(); i++) { x.push_back(i); }

 return bar(x, y, ec, ls, lw, keywords);
}


template<typename Numeric>
bool barh(const std::vector<Numeric> &x, const std::vector<Numeric> &y, std::string ec = "black", std::string ls = "-", double lw = 1.0, const std::map<std::string, std::string> &keywords = { }) {
 PyObject *xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject *yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 PyObject *kwargs = PyDict_New();

 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "ec", PyString_FromString(ec.c_str()));
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "ls", PyString_FromString(ls.c_str()));
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "lw", PyFloat_FromDouble(lw));

 for (std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it) {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyUnicode_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject *plot_args = PyTuple_New(2);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, yarray);

 PyObject *res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_barh, plot_args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if (res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}


inline bool subplots_adjust(const std::map<std::string, double>& keywords = {})
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for (std::map<std::string, double>::const_iterator it =
 keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it) {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(),
 PyFloat_FromDouble(it->second));
 }


 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(0);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_subplots_adjust, plot_args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if(res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template< typename Numeric>
bool named_hist(std::string label,const std::vector<Numeric>& y, long bins=10, std::string color="b", double alpha=1.0)
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "label", PyString_FromString(label.c_str()));
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "bins", PyLong_FromLong(bins));
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "color", PyString_FromString(color.c_str()));
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "alpha", PyFloat_FromDouble(alpha));


 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, yarray);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_hist, plot_args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if(res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template<typename NumericX, typename NumericY>
bool plot(const std::vector<NumericX>& x, const std::vector<NumericY>& y, const std::string& s = "")
{
 assert(x.size() == y.size());

 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 PyObject* pystring = PyString_FromString(s.c_str());

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, yarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 2, pystring);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_plot, plot_args);

 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 if(res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template <typename NumericX, typename NumericY, typename NumericZ>
bool contour(const std::vector<NumericX>& x, const std::vector<NumericY>& y,
 const std::vector<NumericZ>& z,
 const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords = {}) {
 assert(x.size() == y.size() && x.size() == z.size());

 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);
 PyObject* zarray = detail::get_array(z);

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, yarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 2, zarray);

 // construct keyword args
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for (std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin();
 it != keywords.end(); ++it) {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyUnicode_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* res =
 PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_contour, plot_args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 if (res)
 Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template<typename NumericX, typename NumericY, typename NumericU, typename NumericW>
bool quiver(const std::vector<NumericX>& x, const std::vector<NumericY>& y, const std::vector<NumericU>& u, const std::vector<NumericW>& w, const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords = {})
{
 assert(x.size() == y.size() && x.size() == u.size() && u.size() == w.size());

 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);
 PyObject* uarray = detail::get_array(u);
 PyObject* warray = detail::get_array(w);

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(4);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, yarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 2, uarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 3, warray);

 // construct keyword args
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for(std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it)
 {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyUnicode_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_quiver, plot_args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 if (res)
 Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template<typename NumericX, typename NumericY, typename NumericZ, typename NumericU, typename NumericW, typename NumericV>
bool quiver(const std::vector<NumericX>& x, const std::vector<NumericY>& y, const std::vector<NumericZ>& z, const std::vector<NumericU>& u, const std::vector<NumericW>& w, const std::vector<NumericV>& v, const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords = {})
{
 //set up 3d axes stuff
 static PyObject *mpl_toolkitsmod = nullptr, *axis3dmod = nullptr;
 if (!mpl_toolkitsmod) {
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* mpl_toolkits = PyString_FromString("mpl_toolkits");
 PyObject* axis3d = PyString_FromString("mpl_toolkits.mplot3d");
 if (!mpl_toolkits || !axis3d) { throw std::runtime_error("couldnt create string"); }

 mpl_toolkitsmod = PyImport_Import(mpl_toolkits);
 Py_DECREF(mpl_toolkits);
 if (!mpl_toolkitsmod) { throw std::runtime_error("Error loading module mpl_toolkits!"); }

 axis3dmod = PyImport_Import(axis3d);
 Py_DECREF(axis3d);
 if (!axis3dmod) { throw std::runtime_error("Error loading module mpl_toolkits.mplot3d!"); }
 }
 
 //assert sizes match up
 assert(x.size() == y.size() && x.size() == u.size() && u.size() == w.size() && x.size() == z.size() && x.size() == v.size() && u.size() == v.size());

 //set up parameters
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);
 PyObject* zarray = detail::get_array(z);
 PyObject* uarray = detail::get_array(u);
 PyObject* warray = detail::get_array(w);
 PyObject* varray = detail::get_array(v);

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(6);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, yarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 2, zarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 3, uarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 4, warray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 5, varray);

 // construct keyword args
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for(std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it)
 {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyUnicode_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }
 
 //get figure gca to enable 3d projection
 PyObject *fig =
 PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_figure,
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple);
 if (!fig) throw std::runtime_error("Call to figure() failed.");

 PyObject *gca_kwargs = PyDict_New();
 PyDict_SetItemString(gca_kwargs, "projection", PyString_FromString("3d"));

 PyObject *gca = PyObject_GetAttrString(fig, "gca");
 if (!gca) throw std::runtime_error("No gca");
 Py_INCREF(gca);
 PyObject *axis = PyObject_Call(
 gca, detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple, gca_kwargs);

 if (!axis) throw std::runtime_error("No axis");
 Py_INCREF(axis);
 Py_DECREF(gca);
 Py_DECREF(gca_kwargs);
 
 //plot our boys bravely, plot them strongly, plot them with a wink and clap
 PyObject *plot3 = PyObject_GetAttrString(axis, "quiver");
 if (!plot3) throw std::runtime_error("No 3D line plot");
 Py_INCREF(plot3);
 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(
 plot3, plot_args, kwargs);
 if (!res) throw std::runtime_error("Failed 3D plot");
 Py_DECREF(plot3);
 Py_DECREF(axis);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 if (res)
 Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template<typename NumericX, typename NumericY>
bool stem(const std::vector<NumericX>& x, const std::vector<NumericY>& y, const std::string& s = "")
{
 assert(x.size() == y.size());

 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 PyObject* pystring = PyString_FromString(s.c_str());

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, yarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 2, pystring);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_stem, plot_args);

 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 if (res)
 Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template<typename NumericX, typename NumericY>
bool semilogx(const std::vector<NumericX>& x, const std::vector<NumericY>& y, const std::string& s = "")
{
 assert(x.size() == y.size());

 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 PyObject* pystring = PyString_FromString(s.c_str());

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, yarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 2, pystring);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_semilogx, plot_args);

 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 if(res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template<typename NumericX, typename NumericY>
bool semilogy(const std::vector<NumericX>& x, const std::vector<NumericY>& y, const std::string& s = "")
{
 assert(x.size() == y.size());

 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 PyObject* pystring = PyString_FromString(s.c_str());

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, yarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 2, pystring);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_semilogy, plot_args);

 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 if(res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template<typename NumericX, typename NumericY>
bool loglog(const std::vector<NumericX>& x, const std::vector<NumericY>& y, const std::string& s = "")
{
 assert(x.size() == y.size());

 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 PyObject* pystring = PyString_FromString(s.c_str());

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, yarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 2, pystring);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_loglog, plot_args);

 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 if(res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template<typename NumericX, typename NumericY>
bool errorbar(const std::vector<NumericX> &x, const std::vector<NumericY> &y, const std::vector<NumericX> &yerr, const std::map<std::string, std::string> &keywords = {})
{
 assert(x.size() == y.size());

 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);
 PyObject* yerrarray = detail::get_array(yerr);

 // construct keyword args
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for(std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it)
 {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyString_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "yerr", yerrarray);

 PyObject *plot_args = PyTuple_New(2);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, yarray);

 PyObject *res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_errorbar, plot_args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(plot_args);

 if (res)
 Py_DECREF(res);
 else
 throw std::runtime_error("Call to errorbar() failed.");

 return res;
}

template<typename Numeric>
bool named_plot(const std::string& name, const std::vector<Numeric>& y, const std::string& format = "")
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "label", PyString_FromString(name.c_str()));

 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 PyObject* pystring = PyString_FromString(format.c_str());

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(2);

 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, yarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, pystring);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_plot, plot_args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 if (res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template<typename NumericX, typename NumericY>
bool named_plot(const std::string& name, const std::vector<NumericX>& x, const std::vector<NumericY>& y, const std::string& format = "")
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "label", PyString_FromString(name.c_str()));

 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 PyObject* pystring = PyString_FromString(format.c_str());

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, yarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 2, pystring);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_plot, plot_args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 if (res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template<typename NumericX, typename NumericY>
bool named_semilogx(const std::string& name, const std::vector<NumericX>& x, const std::vector<NumericY>& y, const std::string& format = "")
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "label", PyString_FromString(name.c_str()));

 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 PyObject* pystring = PyString_FromString(format.c_str());

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, yarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 2, pystring);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_semilogx, plot_args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 if (res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template<typename NumericX, typename NumericY>
bool named_semilogy(const std::string& name, const std::vector<NumericX>& x, const std::vector<NumericY>& y, const std::string& format = "")
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "label", PyString_FromString(name.c_str()));

 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 PyObject* pystring = PyString_FromString(format.c_str());

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, yarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 2, pystring);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_semilogy, plot_args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 if (res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template<typename NumericX, typename NumericY>
bool named_loglog(const std::string& name, const std::vector<NumericX>& x, const std::vector<NumericY>& y, const std::string& format = "")
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "label", PyString_FromString(name.c_str()));

 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 PyObject* pystring = PyString_FromString(format.c_str());

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, yarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 2, pystring);
 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_loglog, plot_args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 if (res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
}

template<typename Numeric>
bool plot(const std::vector<Numeric>& y, const std::string& format = "")
{
 std::vector<Numeric> x(y.size());
 for(size_t i=0; i<x.size(); ++i) x.at(i) = i;
 return plot(x,y,format);
}

template<typename Numeric>
bool plot(const std::vector<Numeric>& y, const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords)
{
 std::vector<Numeric> x(y.size());
 for(size_t i=0; i<x.size(); ++i) x.at(i) = i;
 return plot(x,y,keywords);
}

template<typename Numeric>
bool stem(const std::vector<Numeric>& y, const std::string& format = "")
{
 std::vector<Numeric> x(y.size());
 for (size_t i = 0; i < x.size(); ++i) x.at(i) = i;
 return stem(x, y, format);
}

template<typename Numeric>
void text(Numeric x, Numeric y, const std::string& s = "")
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, PyFloat_FromDouble(x));
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 1, PyFloat_FromDouble(y));
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 2, PyString_FromString(s.c_str()));

 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_text, args);
 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to text() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void colorbar(PyObject* mappable = NULL, const std::map<std::string, float>& keywords = {})
{
 if (mappable == NULL)
 throw std::runtime_error("Must call colorbar with PyObject* returned from an image, contour, surface, etc.");

 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, mappable);

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for(std::map<std::string, float>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it)
 {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyFloat_FromDouble(it->second));
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_colorbar, args, kwargs);
 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to colorbar() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(res);
}


inline long figure(long number = -1)
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject *res;
 if (number == -1)
 res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_figure, detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple);
 else {
 assert(number > 0);

 // Make sure interpreter is initialised
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject *args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, PyLong_FromLong(number));
 res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_figure, args);
 Py_DECREF(args);
 }

 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to figure() failed.");

 PyObject* num = PyObject_GetAttrString(res, "number");
 if (!num) throw std::runtime_error("Could not get number attribute of figure object");
 const long figureNumber = PyLong_AsLong(num);

 Py_DECREF(num);
 Py_DECREF(res);

 return figureNumber;
}

inline bool fignum_exists(long number)
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject *args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, PyLong_FromLong(number));
 PyObject *res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_fignum_exists, args);
 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to fignum_exists() failed.");

 bool ret = PyObject_IsTrue(res);
 Py_DECREF(res);
 Py_DECREF(args);

 return ret;
}

inline void figure_size(size_t w, size_t h)
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 const size_t dpi = 100;
 PyObject* size = PyTuple_New(2);
 PyTuple_SetItem(size, 0, PyFloat_FromDouble((double)w / dpi));
 PyTuple_SetItem(size, 1, PyFloat_FromDouble((double)h / dpi));

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "figsize", size);
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "dpi", PyLong_FromSize_t(dpi));

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_figure,
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(kwargs);

 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to figure_size() failed.");
 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void legend()
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_legend, detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple);
 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to legend() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void legend(const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords)
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 // construct keyword args
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for(std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it)
 {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyString_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_legend, detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple, kwargs);
 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to legend() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(res);
}

template<typename Numeric>
inline void set_aspect(Numeric ratio)
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, PyFloat_FromDouble(ratio));
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();

 PyObject *ax =
 PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_gca,
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple);
 if (!ax) throw std::runtime_error("Call to gca() failed.");
 Py_INCREF(ax);

 PyObject *set_aspect = PyObject_GetAttrString(ax, "set_aspect");
 if (!set_aspect) throw std::runtime_error("Attribute set_aspect not found.");
 Py_INCREF(set_aspect);

 PyObject *res = PyObject_Call(set_aspect, args, kwargs);
 if (!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to set_aspect() failed.");
 Py_DECREF(set_aspect);

 Py_DECREF(ax);
 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
}

inline void set_aspect_equal()
{
 // expect ratio == "equal". Leaving error handling to matplotlib.
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, PyString_FromString("equal"));
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();

 PyObject *ax =
 PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_gca,
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple);
 if (!ax) throw std::runtime_error("Call to gca() failed.");
 Py_INCREF(ax);

 PyObject *set_aspect = PyObject_GetAttrString(ax, "set_aspect");
 if (!set_aspect) throw std::runtime_error("Attribute set_aspect not found.");
 Py_INCREF(set_aspect);

 PyObject *res = PyObject_Call(set_aspect, args, kwargs);
 if (!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to set_aspect() failed.");
 Py_DECREF(set_aspect);

 Py_DECREF(ax);
 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
}

template<typename Numeric>
void ylim(Numeric left, Numeric right)
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* list = PyList_New(2);
 PyList_SetItem(list, 0, PyFloat_FromDouble(left));
 PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyFloat_FromDouble(right));

 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, list);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_ylim, args);
 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to ylim() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(res);
}

template<typename Numeric>
void xlim(Numeric left, Numeric right)
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* list = PyList_New(2);
 PyList_SetItem(list, 0, PyFloat_FromDouble(left));
 PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyFloat_FromDouble(right));

 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, list);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_xlim, args);
 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to xlim() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(res);
}


inline std::array<double, 2> xlim()
{
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(0);
 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_xlim, args);

 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to xlim() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(res);

 PyObject* left = PyTuple_GetItem(res,0);
 PyObject* right = PyTuple_GetItem(res,1);
 return { PyFloat_AsDouble(left), PyFloat_AsDouble(right) };
}


inline std::array<double, 2> ylim()
{
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(0);
 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_ylim, args);

 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to ylim() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(res);

 PyObject* left = PyTuple_GetItem(res,0);
 PyObject* right = PyTuple_GetItem(res,1);
 return { PyFloat_AsDouble(left), PyFloat_AsDouble(right) };
}

template<typename Numeric>
inline void xticks(const std::vector<Numeric> &ticks, const std::vector<std::string> &labels = {}, const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords = {})
{
 assert(labels.size() == 0 || ticks.size() == labels.size());

 detail::_interpreter::get();

 // using numpy array
 PyObject* ticksarray = detail::get_array(ticks);

 PyObject* args;
 if(labels.size() == 0) {
 // construct positional args
 args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, ticksarray);
 } else {
 // make tuple of tick labels
 PyObject* labelstuple = PyTuple_New(labels.size());
 for (size_t i = 0; i < labels.size(); i++)
 PyTuple_SetItem(labelstuple, i, PyUnicode_FromString(labels[i].c_str()));

 // construct positional args
 args = PyTuple_New(2);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, ticksarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 1, labelstuple);
 }

 // construct keyword args
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for(std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it)
 {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyString_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_xticks, args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to xticks() failed");

 Py_DECREF(res);
}

template<typename Numeric>
inline void xticks(const std::vector<Numeric> &ticks, const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords)
{
 xticks(ticks, {}, keywords);
}

template<typename Numeric>
inline void yticks(const std::vector<Numeric> &ticks, const std::vector<std::string> &labels = {}, const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords = {})
{
 assert(labels.size() == 0 || ticks.size() == labels.size());

 detail::_interpreter::get();

 // using numpy array
 PyObject* ticksarray = detail::get_array(ticks);

 PyObject* args;
 if(labels.size() == 0) {
 // construct positional args
 args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, ticksarray);
 } else {
 // make tuple of tick labels
 PyObject* labelstuple = PyTuple_New(labels.size());
 for (size_t i = 0; i < labels.size(); i++)
 PyTuple_SetItem(labelstuple, i, PyUnicode_FromString(labels[i].c_str()));

 // construct positional args
 args = PyTuple_New(2);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, ticksarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 1, labelstuple);
 }

 // construct keyword args
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for(std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it)
 {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyString_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_yticks, args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to yticks() failed");

 Py_DECREF(res);
}

template<typename Numeric>
inline void yticks(const std::vector<Numeric> &ticks, const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords)
{
 yticks(ticks, {}, keywords);
}

template <typename Numeric> inline void margins(Numeric margin)
{
 // construct positional args
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, PyFloat_FromDouble(margin));

 PyObject* res =
 PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_margins, args);
 if (!res)
 throw std::runtime_error("Call to margins() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(res);
}

template <typename Numeric> inline void margins(Numeric margin_x, Numeric margin_y)
{
 // construct positional args
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(2);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, PyFloat_FromDouble(margin_x));
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 1, PyFloat_FromDouble(margin_y));

 PyObject* res =
 PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_margins, args);
 if (!res)
 throw std::runtime_error("Call to margins() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(res);
}


inline void tick_params(const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords, const std::string axis = "both")
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 // construct positional args
 PyObject* args;
 args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, PyString_FromString(axis.c_str()));

 // construct keyword args
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for (std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it)
 {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyString_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }


 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_tick_params, args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if (!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to tick_params() failed");

 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void subplot(long nrows, long ncols, long plot_number)
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 // construct positional args
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, PyFloat_FromDouble(nrows));
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 1, PyFloat_FromDouble(ncols));
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 2, PyFloat_FromDouble(plot_number));

 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_subplot, args);
 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to subplot() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void subplot2grid(long nrows, long ncols, long rowid=0, long colid=0, long rowspan=1, long colspan=1)
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* shape = PyTuple_New(2);
 PyTuple_SetItem(shape, 0, PyLong_FromLong(nrows));
 PyTuple_SetItem(shape, 1, PyLong_FromLong(ncols));

 PyObject* loc = PyTuple_New(2);
 PyTuple_SetItem(loc, 0, PyLong_FromLong(rowid));
 PyTuple_SetItem(loc, 1, PyLong_FromLong(colid));

 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(4);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, shape);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 1, loc);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 2, PyLong_FromLong(rowspan));
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 3, PyLong_FromLong(colspan));

 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_subplot2grid, args);
 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to subplot2grid() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(shape);
 Py_DECREF(loc);
 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void title(const std::string &titlestr, const std::map<std::string, std::string> &keywords = {})
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* pytitlestr = PyString_FromString(titlestr.c_str());
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, pytitlestr);

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for (auto it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it) {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyUnicode_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_title, args, kwargs);
 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to title() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void suptitle(const std::string &suptitlestr, const std::map<std::string, std::string> &keywords = {})
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* pysuptitlestr = PyString_FromString(suptitlestr.c_str());
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, pysuptitlestr);

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for (auto it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it) {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyUnicode_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_suptitle, args, kwargs);
 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to suptitle() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void axis(const std::string &axisstr)
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* str = PyString_FromString(axisstr.c_str());
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, str);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_axis, args);
 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to title() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void axhline(double y, double xmin = 0., double xmax = 1., const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords = std::map<std::string, std::string>())
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 // construct positional args
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, PyFloat_FromDouble(y));
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 1, PyFloat_FromDouble(xmin));
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 2, PyFloat_FromDouble(xmax));

 // construct keyword args
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for(std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it)
 {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyString_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_axhline, args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);

 if(res) Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void axvline(double x, double ymin = 0., double ymax = 1., const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords = std::map<std::string, std::string>())
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 // construct positional args
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, PyFloat_FromDouble(x));
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 1, PyFloat_FromDouble(ymin));
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 2, PyFloat_FromDouble(ymax));

 // construct keyword args
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for(std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it)
 {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyString_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_axvline, args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);

 if(res) Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void axvspan(double xmin, double xmax, double ymin = 0., double ymax = 1., const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords = std::map<std::string, std::string>())
{
 // construct positional args
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(4);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, PyFloat_FromDouble(xmin));
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 1, PyFloat_FromDouble(xmax));
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 2, PyFloat_FromDouble(ymin));
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 3, PyFloat_FromDouble(ymax));

 // construct keyword args
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for (auto it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it) {
 if (it->first == "linewidth" || it->first == "alpha") {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(),
 PyFloat_FromDouble(std::stod(it->second)));
 } else {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(),
 PyString_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_axvspan, args, kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);

 if(res) Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void xlabel(const std::string &str, const std::map<std::string, std::string> &keywords = {})
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* pystr = PyString_FromString(str.c_str());
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, pystr);

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for (auto it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it) {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyUnicode_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_xlabel, args, kwargs);
 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to xlabel() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void ylabel(const std::string &str, const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords = {})
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* pystr = PyString_FromString(str.c_str());
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, pystr);

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for (auto it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it) {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyUnicode_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_ylabel, args, kwargs);
 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to ylabel() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void set_zlabel(const std::string &str, const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords = {})
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 // Same as with plot_surface: We lazily load the modules here the first time
 // this function is called because I'm not sure that we can assume "matplotlib
 // installed" implies "mpl_toolkits installed" on all platforms, and we don't
 // want to require it for people who don't need 3d plots.
 static PyObject *mpl_toolkitsmod = nullptr, *axis3dmod = nullptr;
 if (!mpl_toolkitsmod) {
 PyObject* mpl_toolkits = PyString_FromString("mpl_toolkits");
 PyObject* axis3d = PyString_FromString("mpl_toolkits.mplot3d");
 if (!mpl_toolkits || !axis3d) { throw std::runtime_error("couldnt create string"); }

 mpl_toolkitsmod = PyImport_Import(mpl_toolkits);
 Py_DECREF(mpl_toolkits);
 if (!mpl_toolkitsmod) { throw std::runtime_error("Error loading module mpl_toolkits!"); }

 axis3dmod = PyImport_Import(axis3d);
 Py_DECREF(axis3d);
 if (!axis3dmod) { throw std::runtime_error("Error loading module mpl_toolkits.mplot3d!"); }
 }

 PyObject* pystr = PyString_FromString(str.c_str());
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, pystr);

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for (auto it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it) {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyUnicode_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject *ax =
 PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_gca,
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple);
 if (!ax) throw std::runtime_error("Call to gca() failed.");
 Py_INCREF(ax);

 PyObject *zlabel = PyObject_GetAttrString(ax, "set_zlabel");
 if (!zlabel) throw std::runtime_error("Attribute set_zlabel not found.");
 Py_INCREF(zlabel);

 PyObject *res = PyObject_Call(zlabel, args, kwargs);
 if (!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to set_zlabel() failed.");
 Py_DECREF(zlabel);

 Py_DECREF(ax);
 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 if (res) Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void grid(bool flag)
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* pyflag = flag ? Py_True : Py_False;
 Py_INCREF(pyflag);

 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, pyflag);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_grid, args);
 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to grid() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void show(const bool block = true)
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* res;
 if(block)
 {
 res = PyObject_CallObject(
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_show,
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple);
 }
 else
 {
 PyObject *kwargs = PyDict_New();
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "block", Py_False);
 res = PyObject_Call( detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_show, detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple, kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 }


 if (!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to show() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void close()
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_close,
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple);

 if (!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to close() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void xkcd() {
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* res;
 PyObject *kwargs = PyDict_New();

 res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_xkcd,
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(kwargs);

 if (!res)
 throw std::runtime_error("Call to show() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void draw()
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_draw,
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple);

 if (!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to draw() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(res);
}

template<typename Numeric>
inline void pause(Numeric interval)
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, PyFloat_FromDouble(interval));

 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_pause, args);
 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to pause() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void save(const std::string& filename, const int dpi=0)
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* pyfilename = PyString_FromString(filename.c_str());

 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, pyfilename);

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();

 if(dpi > 0)
 {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "dpi", PyLong_FromLong(dpi));
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_save, args, kwargs);
 if (!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to save() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void rcparams(const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords = {}) {
 detail::_interpreter::get();
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(0);
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for (auto it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it) {
 if ("text.usetex" == it->first)
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyLong_FromLong(std::stoi(it->second.c_str())));
 else PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyString_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }
 
 PyObject * update = PyObject_GetAttrString(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_rcparams, "update");
 PyObject * res = PyObject_Call(update, args, kwargs);
 if(!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to rcParams.update() failed.");
 Py_DECREF(args);
 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(update);
 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void clf() {
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject *res = PyObject_CallObject(
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_clf,
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple);

 if (!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to clf() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void cla() {
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_cla,
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple);

 if (!res)
 throw std::runtime_error("Call to cla() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline void ion() {
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject *res = PyObject_CallObject(
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_ion,
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple);

 if (!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to ion() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(res);
}

inline std::vector<std::array<double, 2>> ginput(const int numClicks = 1, const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords = {})
{
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject *args = PyTuple_New(1);
 PyTuple_SetItem(args, 0, PyLong_FromLong(numClicks));

 // construct keyword args
 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 for(std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = keywords.begin(); it != keywords.end(); ++it)
 {
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, it->first.c_str(), PyUnicode_FromString(it->second.c_str()));
 }

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_ginput, args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(args);
 if (!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to ginput() failed.");

 const size_t len = PyList_Size(res);
 std::vector<std::array<double, 2>> out;
 out.reserve(len);
 for (size_t i = 0; i < len; i++) {
 PyObject *current = PyList_GetItem(res, i);
 std::array<double, 2> position;
 position[0] = PyFloat_AsDouble(PyTuple_GetItem(current, 0));
 position[1] = PyFloat_AsDouble(PyTuple_GetItem(current, 1));
 out.push_back(position);
 }
 Py_DECREF(res);

 return out;
}

// Actually, is there any reason not to call this automatically for every plot?
inline void tight_layout() {
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 PyObject *res = PyObject_CallObject(
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_tight_layout,
 detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_empty_tuple);

 if (!res) throw std::runtime_error("Call to tight_layout() failed.");

 Py_DECREF(res);
}

// Support for variadic plot() and initializer lists:

namespace detail {

template<typename T>
using is_function = typename std::is_function<std::remove_pointer<std::remove_reference<T>>>::type;

template<bool obj, typename T>
struct is_callable_impl;

template<typename T>
struct is_callable_impl<false, T>
{
 typedef is_function<T> type;
}; // a non-object is callable iff it is a function

template<typename T>
struct is_callable_impl<true, T>
{
 struct Fallback { void operator()(); };
 struct Derived : T, Fallback { };

 template<typename U, U> struct Check;

 template<typename U>
 static std::true_type test( ... ); // use a variadic function to make sure (1) it accepts everything and (2) its always the worst match

 template<typename U>
 static std::false_type test( Check<void(Fallback::*)(), &U::operator()>* );

public:
 typedef decltype(test<Derived>(nullptr)) type;
 typedef decltype(&Fallback::operator()) dtype;
 static constexpr bool value = type::value;
}; // an object is callable iff it defines operator()

template<typename T>
struct is_callable
{
 // dispatch to is_callable_impl<true, T> or is_callable_impl<false, T> depending on whether T is of class type or not
 typedef typename is_callable_impl<std::is_class<T>::value, T>::type type;
};

template<typename IsYDataCallable>
struct plot_impl { };

template<>
struct plot_impl<std::false_type>
{
 template<typename IterableX, typename IterableY>
 bool operator()(const IterableX& x, const IterableY& y, const std::string& format)
 {
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 // 2-phase lookup for distance, begin, end
 using std::distance;
 using std::begin;
 using std::end;

 auto xs = distance(begin(x), end(x));
 auto ys = distance(begin(y), end(y));
 assert(xs == ys && "x and y data must have the same number of elements!");

 PyObject* xlist = PyList_New(xs);
 PyObject* ylist = PyList_New(ys);
 PyObject* pystring = PyString_FromString(format.c_str());

 auto itx = begin(x), ity = begin(y);
 for(size_t i = 0; i < xs; ++i) {
 PyList_SetItem(xlist, i, PyFloat_FromDouble(*itx++));
 PyList_SetItem(ylist, i, PyFloat_FromDouble(*ity++));
 }

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xlist);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, ylist);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 2, pystring);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_plot, plot_args);

 Py_DECREF(plot_args);
 if(res) Py_DECREF(res);

 return res;
 }
};

template<>
struct plot_impl<std::true_type>
{
 template<typename Iterable, typename Callable>
 bool operator()(const Iterable& ticks, const Callable& f, const std::string& format)
 {
 if(begin(ticks) == end(ticks)) return true;

 // We could use additional meta-programming to deduce the correct element type of y,
 // but all values have to be convertible to double anyways
 std::vector<double> y;
 for(auto x : ticks) y.push_back(f(x));
 return plot_impl<std::false_type>()(ticks,y,format);
 }
};

} // end namespace detail

// recursion stop for the above
template<typename... Args>
bool plot() { return true; }

template<typename A, typename B, typename... Args>
bool plot(const A& a, const B& b, const std::string& format, Args... args)
{
 return detail::plot_impl<typename detail::is_callable<B>::type>()(a,b,format) && plot(args...);
}

/*
 * This group of plot() functions is needed to support initializer lists, i.e. calling
 * plot( {1,2,3,4} )
 */
inline bool plot(const std::vector<double>& x, const std::vector<double>& y, const std::string& format = "") {
 return plot<double,double>(x,y,format);
}

inline bool plot(const std::vector<double>& y, const std::string& format = "") {
 return plot<double>(y,format);
}

inline bool plot(const std::vector<double>& x, const std::vector<double>& y, const std::map<std::string, std::string>& keywords) {
 return plot<double>(x,y,keywords);
}

/*
 * This class allows dynamic plots, ie changing the plotted data without clearing and re-plotting
 */
class Plot
{
public:
 // default initialization with plot label, some data and format
 template<typename Numeric>
 Plot(const std::string& name, const std::vector<Numeric>& x, const std::vector<Numeric>& y, const std::string& format = "") {
 detail::_interpreter::get();

 assert(x.size() == y.size());

 PyObject* kwargs = PyDict_New();
 if(name != "")
 PyDict_SetItemString(kwargs, "label", PyString_FromString(name.c_str()));

 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 PyObject* pystring = PyString_FromString(format.c_str());

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(3);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, yarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 2, pystring);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_Call(detail::_interpreter::get().s_python_function_plot, plot_args, kwargs);

 Py_DECREF(kwargs);
 Py_DECREF(plot_args);

 if(res)
 {
 line= PyList_GetItem(res, 0);

 if(line)
 set_data_fct = PyObject_GetAttrString(line,"set_data");
 else
 Py_DECREF(line);
 Py_DECREF(res);
 }
 }

 // shorter initialization with name or format only
 // basically calls line, = plot([], [])
 Plot(const std::string& name = "", const std::string& format = "")
 : Plot(name, std::vector<double>(), std::vector<double>(), format) {}

 template<typename Numeric>
 bool update(const std::vector<Numeric>& x, const std::vector<Numeric>& y) {
 assert(x.size() == y.size());
 if(set_data_fct)
 {
 PyObject* xarray = detail::get_array(x);
 PyObject* yarray = detail::get_array(y);

 PyObject* plot_args = PyTuple_New(2);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 0, xarray);
 PyTuple_SetItem(plot_args, 1, yarray);

 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(set_data_fct, plot_args);
 if (res) Py_DECREF(res);
 return res;
 }
 return false;
 }

 // clears the plot but keep it available
 bool clear() {
 return update(std::vector<double>(), std::vector<double>());
 }

 // definitely remove this line
 void remove() {
 if(line)
 {
 auto remove_fct = PyObject_GetAttrString(line,"remove");
 PyObject* args = PyTuple_New(0);
 PyObject* res = PyObject_CallObject(remove_fct, args);
 if (res) Py_DECREF(res);
 }
 decref();
 }

 ~Plot() {
 decref();
 }
private:

 void decref() {
 if(line)
 Py_DECREF(line);
 if(set_data_fct)
 Py_DECREF(set_data_fct);
 }


 PyObject* line = nullptr;
 PyObject* set_data_fct = nullptr;
};

} // end namespace matplotlibcpp