[C++] Update bundled Protobuf to a more recent version

[raulcd]

Describe the enhancement requested

We are using a pretty old version of the bundled Protobuf:

arrow/cpp/thirdparty/versions.txt

Lines 95 to 96 in 00de992

	ARROW_PROTOBUF_BUILD_VERSION=v21.3
	ARROW_PROTOBUF_BUILD_SHA256_CHECKSUM=2f723218f6cb709ae4cdc4fb5ed56a5951fc5d466f0128ce4c946b8c78c8c49f

The version is ~2.5 years old, see: https://github.com/protocolbuffers/protobuf/releases/tag/v21.3
We should update to a newer version as discussed here:
#44775 (comment)

Component(s)

C++

[github-actions]

This issue has been marked as stale because it has had no activity in the past 365 days. Please remove the stale label or comment below, or this issue will be closed in 14 days. If this improvement is still desired but has no current owner, please add the 'Status: needs champion' label.

[raulcd]

I am currently moving several of our dependencies to FetchContent, see:

• [C++] Refactor bundled dependencies from ExternalProject to FetchContent #45303

This should allow easier upgrade for some of our dependencies that have been difficult to upgrade in the past like Abseil, gRPC and Protobuf. I plan to work on this issue and the rest of the upgrades once I have moved all of them to FetchContent

[raulcd]

This has finally been done here 🥳

• GH-48926: [C++] Upgrade Abseil/Protobuf/GRPC/Google-Cloud-CPP bundled versions #48964